Samhain

Samhain, otherwise known as All Hallows Eve, Hallowe'en, Samhuin, and Feis na Samhain, takes place on October 31 and November 1. The harvest is in, the days are noticeably shorter, and gardens and fields have been dug up or burnt.

Samhain (pronounced sow-in, sahv-in or sow-ween, NOT sam-hane) is the most important of the Pagan Sabbats. It is one of the cross-quarter days, and is the last of the harvest festivals. This is the beginning of the winter half of the year, and a time when the veil between the worlds is very thin. The beloved dead are remembered through offerings of food, all-night vigils, and story telling.

Sometimes a Dumb Supper during which there is no talking is celebrated, empty seats being left for the dead. The dead are invited, not compelled; to do so is pointless if the soul has reincarnated, or is rude if the person in question is having too much fun in Tír na nog! This is also a good time to do divinations for the coming year. This is the beginning of the tide of Recession (Samhain - Imbolc) which informs us of Death. Power recedes into the unmanifest, and power given to the Gods works best to achieve a spiritual result. Its power is negative and its word is Godhood.

The deities are in their darkest, most fearsome aspects. The God is now Lord of Death and the Underworld, keeper of the mystery of Death. Though fearsome, He is also comforter and teacher of the Dead, preparing them for their next lifetime. The Goddess is in Her aspect of Crone, the wise woman who tells uncomfortable truths. She is also the keeper of the mystery of rebirth for the God is in Her womb, waiting to be reborn. They are Primordial Chaos, containing the seeds of a new order. They challenge us to look Them in the face, and reaffirm life.

The origins of the name Samhain is not clear. It is probably cognate with Samonios a Gaulish month name, from samon, ‘summer’, hence ‘summery’. This seems to be an odd name for the beginning of winter until you realize that Samhain is the culmination or fulfillment of summer. Later interpretations say that it is derived from sam-fuin, ‘summer’s end’. In ancient times the feast was known as Trinouxtion Samoni (Gaul) or Trenae Samhna, aka: Ireland, translated as The Three Nights of Samhain. The name still survives in the Irish name for the month of November: Mí na Samhna.

Samhain was an important time to the ancient Celts. As a pastoral society it was the time when the herds were moved to winter pasture. Since they did not grow enough grain to feed the herd over the winter all but the selected breeding stock were killed and the meat salted. Feasts of the meat and other festive foods were held for the entire tribe, and divinations were done by the Druids who, gorging on the freshly slaughtered meat, fell into trance to forecast the coming year.

Mythologically this was the time when the Nemedians had to give tribute to the Formorii, and when the Dagda mated with the Mórrígán to ensure the Tuatha Dé Danaan defeat of the Fomorii at the Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh. In more modern times the divinations became more personal, prophesizing deaths, marriages and the like. Needfires and bonfires were also lit on this night, called Samhnagen in Scotland and Coel Coeth in Wales, built on nearby hilltops. Stones were left in the ashes, one for each family or individual, and if a stone was discovered moved in the morning, it was believed someone in that family (or that individual) would die before next Samhain.

When talking about Samhain one fact needs to be made clear: THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS THE GREAT GOD "SAM-HANE", LORD OF THE DEAD. The druids did not worship him, nor is there any mention of him in the myths that have been translated from the Gaeilge. Having said that, there IS a character named Samhain mentioned in folktales collected from the Donegal area of Ireland by O’Donovan at the end of the 19th century. Other sources are listed in the bibliography. These folktales give a more detailed account of how Cian met Eithlinn and sired Lugh, details which do not survive in the myth cycles. The Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh only mentions that Balor gave his daughter Eithlinn to Cian to cement an alliance between the Fomorii and the Tuatha Dé Danaan. Here is one version:

Now it happened that there were on the mainland three brothers, namely, Kian, Sawan [sic], and Goban the Smith.... Kian had a magical cow [named Glas Gaibhnenn], whose milk was so abundant that everyone longed to possess her, and he had to keep her strictly under protection....One day Kian and Sawan had come to the forge to have some weapons made for them, bringing fine steel for that purpose. Kian went into the forge, leaving Sawan in charge of the cow. Balor now appeared on the scene, taking on himself the form of a little red-headed boy, and told Sawan that he had overheard the brothers inside the forge concocting a plan for using all the fine steel for their own swords, but common metal for that of Sawan. The latter, in a great rage, gave the cow’s halter to the boy and rushed into the forge.... Balor immediately carried off the cow, and dragged her across the sea to Tory Island [Tor Mór].1

There are at least five different versions of this folktale, with many variations of name: MacKinealy, MacCennfaelaidh (Cian); MacSamthainn, Sawan (Samhain); Gavida, Goban (Goibhniu). In none of these versions is Samhain described as a Lord of the Dead, nor is he ever mentioned again. His role within Celtic mythology is not clearly defined, though perhaps he was some sort of divine herdsman [my interpretation only!]. It is also unclear if the festival was named after the god, the god after the festival, or if the two were named after something else.

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1T.W. Rolleston, Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race(London, UK: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1927), pp. 110-111.

Bibliography
Curtin, J.(ed.), Hero Tales Of Ireland*
Ellis, P.E.,A Dictionary of Irish Mythology
Farrar, J., & Farrar, S.,A Witches’ Bible Compleat
MacCrossan, T., The Sacred Cauldron
Rees, A., & Rees, B., Celtic Heritage*
Rhys, J., Hibbert Lectures (1886)*
Rolleston, T.W., Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race*
New Millennium Farmer's 1999 Almanac

Yule

Yule, otherwise known as the Winter Solstice, is the shortest day of the year and one of the Quarter Days, hence a Lesser Sabbat. At this time the sun has reached its farthest point south of the equator and is beginning its apparent journey northward again. This day marks the halfway point of the Tide of Recession (Samhain-Imbolc), which informs us of death. Power recedes into the unmanifest, and power given to the Gods works best to achieve a spiritual result. Its word is God-hood.

Yule (from Saxon hwael, "wheel") is celebrated in Paganism as the birth of the Sun God as Divine Child, whose mother is in Her aspect of Life-in-Death, the "leprous white Lady". It also marks the time when the Oak King and the Holly King fight, the Holly King being defeated (though in some traditions He is not killed, being evergreen, but merely deposed). This motif survives in the mummers play "St. George and the Turkish Knight", and in stories of Robin Red-breast killing the Gold Crest Wren.

Many European peoples, from the ancient Greeks to modern Western Europeans, considered the wren to be a kingly bird, as witnessed by the titles "the king", "the little king", "the Lady of Heaven's Hen", among others. The wren is held in such high regard that there are many maladies associated with harming a wren or disturbing its nest, such as broken bones, being struck by lightning, dreadful misfortune, cows giving bloody milk, etc. Despite these beliefs, however, the custom of annually killing the wren prevailed widely in Brittany, France, Ireland, and England.

Sympathetic magick is done to keep the sun from disappearing forever and to give the newborn sun strength. Bonfires built at Yule for this purpose were probably the forerunners of the Yule log. The log was normally of oak and in some places had to be large enough to burn until Twelfth Night. This was amended to burning the Yule log for only a short time each night, since not everyone had a room-sized fireplace. The Yule fire had to be kindled with remnants of last year's log. The rest of last year's log was then ground up and sprinkled over the fields during the Twelve Nights to ensure fertility in the spring. In Westphalia the log was saved and tied up in the last sheaf at harvest for the same reason, combining the Yule log with the corn dolly custom. Yule log remnants were also said to protect the household from lightning strikes.

Of course the most famous of Yuletide symbols has got to be Santa Claus. The Elven King in the red suit was not originally as jolly as he is today. If one traces the variations back through time one sees that the original "Santa Claus" or Knecht Ruprecht, Sunder Klaas, Hans Trapp, Klawes, Klas Buer, Ashenklas, Zwarte Piet, to name a few originally dressed in furs, had horns, an erect penis, and would scare the children as often as give them gifts. One can see right away the similarities between these figures and the Herne/Pan series of deities and Nature Spirits or of their shamans. As time went on the aspects of this character were split into the "good" St. Nicholas and his "dark" helper Black Pete, who still carried the switch and terrorized children but without the more obvious pagan characteristics. (Black Pete was later mistakenly depicted as a mischievous boy of African lineage).

Another symbol rooted in ancient custom was the lighting of candles on the Yule Tree. Tony van Renterghem puts forth the theory that the Yule tree is a remnant of an old racial memory of the first tree struck by lightning which gave the gift of fire. One can see so many examples of this motif, from the Burning Bush and the Pillar of Fire in the Bible, to the Lightning Path down the Qabbalistic Tree of Life, to the Oak Tree and its various associated Lightning deities, just to mention a few. There were even places, such as Denekamp in the Netherlands, which burned their maypole as part of the festivities. Yule logs, bonfires and needfires also belong in this category.

At this, the darkest time of the year, the birth of the waxing light gives us hope, for the wheel has turned once again.

More History and A Step By Step Rite

Bibliography
Farrar, S&J. A Witches' Bible Compleat.
Frazer, J. The Golden Bough.
Llewellyn's Witches' Calendar 1998.
van Renterghem, T., When Santa Was A Shaman.



Imbolc

Imbolc (also known as Candlemas, Oimelc, Lady Day, Imbolg and Bridemas) falls on February 1 & 2. At this time winter starts to lose its grip and symbolizes the quickening of the earth. This is a fire festival, with the emphasis on light rather than heat. Lambs are being born now, bringing with them a fresh supply of milk which in former times helped the people make it through the winter. Imbolc, in fact, is translated as "in the bag"(teat). Some have translated this to mean "in the belly", referring to pregnant animals, but I feel that since many animals are being born at this time, "in the bag" makes more sense.

Imbolc is one of the Cross-Quarter days, which in magick are termed the Greater Sabbats. In some traditions the Mother Goddess has recovered from the Yule birth of the Sun, while in others the crone (or cailleach) of winter is being transformed into the maiden of spring (in mythology hags turn into beautiful women at crucial periods of transformation). The God is a young boy, as witnessed by the now noticeably longer days. This is the traditional time of year for initiations and the renewal of vows. Purification is also a large part of this season. The Tide of Lustration (Imbolc-Beltane) is a period to be devoted to meditation and spiritual growth rather than material effects as the power, though positive, is entirely spiritual and therefore hidden. Its word is Purification.

This is the festival of the goddess Bride (pronounced breed), also known as Brighid, Brigantia (northern England), and Brigindo (eastern France). She is the patroness of healing, smithcraft, and poetry, which represent the mysteries of renewal, transformation, and inspiration. She is also associated with fertility as she presides over the birthing of lambs. In Celtic history she is described as the daughter of the Dagda and was at one time wife to Bres, the half-Formorii ruler of the Tuatha Dé Danann. Later she married Tuireann and had three sons: Brian, Iochar, and Iocharba, who later gained infamy for the killing of Cian, Lugh's father. As the years went by her importance grew until she took on Danu's attributes of Great Goddess and Progenitrix of the Celtic races.

Bride is more commonly revered in the British Isles as St. Brigid, whose legends borrow exclusively from the goddess. St. Brigid was actually an historic person, living from 450-523 c.e., and founding an abbey in Kildare in the sixth century. She is referred to as "Mary of the Gael" and the foster-mother of Christ. There are more sacred wells to her in Ireland than even St. Patrick, and her legends are many. She was born at sunrise, the house in which she was living blazed into a flame which reached to heaven. A pillar of fire rose from her head when she took the final vows. She was the mid-wife to the Virgin Mary and helped find the boy Jesus by using divination when he was lost in Jerusalem. She also was said to have diverted Herod's soldiers so that the Holy Family could escape into Egypt. Attributed powers include breathing life into the dead, multiplying food and drink for the needy, and turning her bath water into beer.

There are histories associated with St. Brigid that indicate she may have been involved with the pre-Christian religions. Her father was said to have been a Druid and she was been taught by a "wizard" (another druid?). The monastery at Kildare had a sacred flame which was never allowed to go out, was only tended by women, and could not be breathed upon (it had to be tended with a bellows). For nineteen days it was tended by the maidens, but on the twentieth it was tended by the goddess (saint?) herself. This flame, lit in the sixth century, was only extinguished once in the thirteenth century before the banishment of the monasteries by Henry VIII who killed the flame for good. Irish scholar R.A.S. MacAlister theorizes that St. Brigid may have been a priestess of Bride who had converted to Christianity.

In Ireland a person acting as the Bride comes to the door, disguised and carrying a box of rushes. Ritual words are exchanged, then crosses (called Bride's Crosses) are made with the rushes to bring blessings on the household. Last year's crosses are burned and replaced with the new, emphasizing the purification theme as all Yuletide decorations had to have been taken down and burned by Imbolc.

At this time we clear out of our lives what is extraneous or detrimental to make way for the new season.

More History and A Step By Step Rite

Bibliography
Cunningham, S.,Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner.
Farrar, S.&J., A Witches' Bible Compleat.
Matthews, C., The Celtic Tradition.
Rees, B.&A., Celtic Heritage.
Rutherford, W., Celtic Mythology.
Squire, C., Celtic Myth and Legend.

Ostara

The vernal, or spring equinox, takes place on or around March 21, when the sun seems to move north over the equator. This is the time when day and night are of equal length, when dark and light are equally balanced. This equinox marks the beginning of the light half of the year.

At this time the Goddess and God are maiden and youth, both on the verge of sexual discovery. Plants and flowers are blooming in warmer climates, whereas here in the Great White North the days are noticeably longer and warm enough to thaw the snow a little and to allow the pussy willows to bloom.

Nature is beginning its first stirrings as animals start to come out of winter hiding or hibernation. This is the midpoint of the Tide of Lustration (Imbolc-Beltane) which is devoted to meditation and spiritual growth rather than material effects as the power, though positive, is entirely spiritual and therefore hidden (not for long!). It's word is Purification.

In Paganism. this festival is often named after the goddess Eostre (Eastre, Eostar, Ostara), a Teutonic goddess of spring and fertility. Not much is known about Her, and, indeed, scholars disagree on the very little that is known. Campanelli and Lurker (see bibliography) link Eostre with Eos, the Greek goddess of the dawn, because of etymology and because the sun rises most directly in the east at this equinox. Grimm of Grimm's Fairy Tales links Her name to Sanskrit and Lithuanian words referring to daylight and dawn. He also writes that many places in Germany were sacred to Her, such as Austerkopp (a hill in Waldeck), Osterstube (a cave), and Astenburg. Branston postulates that Her name may merely be a title for the Norse goddess Frigg in young and vernal dress. Mogk (among others) makes the claim for Austro, a Teutonic goddess of spring. Still others link her to Ishtar, due to similarities in their respective spring festivals.

Now, to totally confuse the issue, there are scholars such as P.D. Chantepie de la Saussaye who claim that this goddess never existed at all! He claims She is merely the invention of Bede who simply made Her up to explain from where the name of the Saxon month of Eosturmonath was derived. St. Bede the Venerable (c. 673-735c.e.) was a monk and a scholar who wrote the first known history of England and of the Church in England. He was known for his care in researching his histories by seeking out the most authoritative texts and for separating fact from hearsay. As Bede was not in the habit of making things up it is unlikely that he invented a pagan goddess just to explain a month name. He wrote, "Eosturmonath, which one now understands as the Paschal (Easter) month, was formerly Eostre; the name has remained from that goddess who was being invoked and whom that feast was honouring."1 It is a mystery as to why his word has been doubted; it is more likely that his sources were at fault, if there was an error.

In any event, the name Easter comes from the name Eostre. Not too surprising, Easter also has other pagan associations. The Easter egg comes from the custom of the pagan Anglo-Saxons giving offerings of eggs to the Goddess of Spring. This in turn was probably brought in from the ancient cultures (7000-5000b.c.) of eastern Europe (present day Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, etc.) who worshipped a bird goddess. Remnants of these customs can still be seen in the in the Ukrainian tradition of Pysanky, or egg decorating. Hot cross buns have predecessors all over Europe, from small, round cakes with solar crosses offered to Eostre to similar cakes offered to a variety of goddess in Greece. Even the method of determining the date of Easter has pagan antecedents.

Why talk about Easter at all? Well, in northern Europe, the equinoxes were not celebrated, except by the pre-Celtic Megalithic people. Any recognition of the equinoxes came with the observance of Easter, which brought its pagan bits from the Mediterranean. Now, in the south of Europe, summer is well on its way, and it was at the Vernal Equinox (as opposed to Beltane in the north) that one sees the motif of the mating and sacrifice of the God. That is why Eostre, Beltane and Litha often have overlapping symbolism in different traditions; it depends on the climate.

In Phrygia from the 22nd to 25th March there was the observance of the self-castration, death, and resurrection of Attis, Son/Lover of Cybele. This festival marked the time when postulants would castrate themselves to become priests. The early Christian Church later took over some of these sites, and where Attis worship was widespread Easter was celebrated at the same time. Their close proximity sparked many an argument between the two religions as to which worshipped the "real" God and which had the imitation. A much milder sacrifice that occurred at the time was what is known as the hieros gamos, or sacred marriage. A priestess would call the Goddess (whoever) into her and male worshippers were invited to surrender themselves to Her (have ritual sex), giving of their masculinity without destroying it. This is probably the inspiration for the Wiccan Great Rite.

More History and A Step By Step Rite

Select Bibliography
Bede, the Venerable, De Temporum Ratione.
Branston, B., The Lost Gods of England.
Campanelli, P., Eostre's Eggs - Eostre's Breads.
Chantepie de la Saussaye, P.D., The Religion of the Teutons.
Farrar, J.&S., A Witches'Bible Compleat.
Grimm, J., Teutonic Mythology.
Lurker, M., Dictionary of Gods, Goddess, Devils and Demons.